Uma das novidades do tipo de organização que se tem procurado fazer um pouco por toda a parte, e à qual nós aqui damos o nosso modesto contributo, é a de tomar em consideração a questão da sustentabilidade, rejeitando de algum modo o consumismo exacerbado. Esta assunção em nada é contraditória com a defesa do que se tem chamado de "direitos adquiridos" (eu não gosto desta terminologia; prefiro chamar-lhes "direitos", e pronto). Os responsáveis pelo ataque a estes direitos são ao mesmo tempo os que mais contribuem para a perpetuação do tal modo de vida insustentável, e os que mais defendem (porque tem a ganhar com isso) o consumismo e a loucura de uma economia baseada em comprar tudo e deitar logo tudo fora. Vide por exemplo a dependência do petróleo, e o facto de hoje, toda a gente saber que as soluções ecologicamente mais viáveis, economicamente mais razoáveis, e mais, que reduzem drasticamente a dependência dos estados a das pessoas face aos humores dos mercados, não são postas em prática ou sequer incentivadas devido aos interesses que os actuais modos de produção de energia movem, e aos lucros que originam. Não tenho qualquer dúvida de que a rejeição deste modo de vida irá levar a um relativo "empobrecimento", que terá de ser acompanhado por um novo paradigma na produção e no consumo, mas é preciso entender o que isto do "empobrecimento" quer dizer; se se entender "empobrecer" por ter uma televisão em vez de três, ou ir cultivar legumes em vez de os tirar da prateleira de um supermercado, eu posso chamá-lo assim. Macroeconomicamente, se isso quer dizer baixar até algo drasticamente o PIB, com certeza. Mas o PIB, ou os indicadores de consumo, são medidas da riqueza a priori distorcidas, por serem aquelas que interessam ao sistema de produção-lucro-consumo. Há outras maneiras de medir a "riqueza", e mais importante, o bem-estar dos cidadãos, como têm provado economistas que não são os-mesmos-de sempre-da-situação-que aparecem-em-todos-os-programas-televisivos. E há algo, a meu ver, ainda mais importante: a construção de um modo de vida mais razoável e sustentável, e que tenha em consideração os interesses das pessoas, só pode acontecer se se puser em causa de uma vez por todas o dogma do lucro e os mecanismos de acumulação do capital. Se se deixa de comprar playstations, isto provoca o desemprego a milhares de pessoas; ora, se isto não for acompanhado de uma lógica diferente de redistribuição da riqueza, se o dinheiro permanecer nas mãos de uns poucos, isto vai originar miséria a rodos. Para que uma coisa destas funcione, é preciso acabar com a acumulação desenfreada, em especial aquela que não tem origem em qualquer coisa que seja produtiva. Podemos viver melhor, com menos dinheiro no total (menos PIB, lá está) desde que o dinheiro que exista, enfim, os bens que são produzidos, sejam orientados para o interesse geral, através de um mercado que não permita a especulação, mas sim a troca livre e justa. Concluindo: acabar com o capitalismo e substituí-lo por outra coisa qualquer que realmente funcione para toda a gente e não só para uns quantos (eu tenho um nome para isto, e não é especialmente novo, mas prefiro não o colocar aqui, para não nos desviarmos do assunto).
Mostrar mensagens com a etiqueta Socialismo. Mostrar todas as mensagens
Mostrar mensagens com a etiqueta Socialismo. Mostrar todas as mensagens
quinta-feira, 23 de fevereiro de 2012
sexta-feira, 30 de setembro de 2011
Socialismo ou barbárie
Muitas pessoas com a melhor das intenções confiam em demasia na racionalidade do sistema. Crêem que da crise virão os ajustes (a palavra é exacta: é uma crença), como se existisse num sistema social algo para lá da vontade dos agentes. Contudo, no topo da pirâmide encontram-se tipos que, por crença e ideologia (os "liberais") ou por puro interesse (estes sem dúvida a maioria), defendem que a conjugação das vontades egoístas origina o "equilíbrio", e que esse egoísmo é o que de mais justo e "livre" existe. Isto, seja também uma crença ou puro cinismo, mesmo que a realidade os desminta a todo o passo. Objectam-nos com os indicadores como a esperança média de vida, a taxa de mortalidade infantil, lembram-nos a democracia que parece estender-se inexoravelmente, esta internet que nos põe todos em comunicação... Sobre isto, primeiro notar que só o facto de estarmos inevitavelmente condenados ao nosso ponto de vista nos impede de entender que outros locais há em que estes indicadores estão agora muito pior que antes; e mais importante que isso: não basta dizer que se progrediu, que a esperança média de vida aumentou; é preciso entender 1- em que direcção se progrediu e 2- quais as condições objectivas que proporcionaram essa progressão. Se tempos houve em que se alargou a riqueza e o poder político para a base, e isto não por nenhuma racionalidade intrínseca ao sistema, mas porque a base o exigiu e conquistou, tempos em que "consciência de classe" não era um conceito demodé, hoje em dia vivemos tempos de sinal contrário: a riqueza e o poder concentram-se cada vez mais numa super-casta superior. Objectivamente, o capitalismo está-se a transformar num capitalismo de casta. Isto, além de ser algo que deve ser combatido por motivos éticos e políticos, e também por motivos de interesse de classe, causa perigos enormes à própria sobrevivência do sistema, porque, pasme-se, o sistema é na verdade completamente irracional, já que assenta na ideia imbecil de que o egoísmo descontrolado origina o equilíbrio.
Uma questão adicional é a da crescente complexidade do sistema. Isto é um problema porque nos levou a um paradigma em que dificilmente se encontra maneira de introduzir racionalidade no sistema: os estados já não o controlam, nem as instituições internacionais ou os bancos centrais; e os que efectivamente detêm o poder, ou não tem o mínimo interesse em alterar seja o que for, ou estão eles mesmos enredados numa teia sistemática. Portanto, no preciso momento em que dispomos das ferramentas mais poderosas da História para modificar os equilíbrios sociais em direcção a uma maior humanização, democracia, bem-estar de todos os cidadãos, verificamos que elas de nada nos valerão se não tivermos a noção clara de que é necessário alterar profundamente o paradigma, e que para isto acontecer dependemos exclusivamente de nós; o sistema não se regenerará espontaneamente, como na ilusão "liberal", nem o topo da pirâmide fará o que for para alterar as coisas. Aquilo que é necessário, como recuperar conceitos como os de "propriedade social", "utilidade pública", "interesse comum", só acontecerá se nós, como agentes da História, forçarmos a mudança. A frase de Marx (a propósito: pode-se olhar para Marx sem preconceitos?), "socialismo ou barbárie", define a encruzilhada destes tempos.
quinta-feira, 30 de setembro de 2010
Orçamento 2011
A receita para combater a crise é acrescentar mais crise. Sempre me espantou a lógica distorcida do capitalismo: há pouco dinheiro, emprego, a economia abranda? Corte-se nos salários, aumentem-se os impostos, faça-se haver ainda menos dinheiro, emprego, que a economia se depaupere o pouco que ainda resta. Mais ainda me espanta que estas estranhas ideias façam tanto eco em tanta gente, e apareçam por aí como receitas únicas e inevitáveis.
sexta-feira, 9 de julho de 2010
No Arrastão
João Rodrigues, como sempre certeiro:
"Alguns dirigentes do PS disseram qualquer coisa de esquerda, mas sem tradução no campo das políticas públicas concretas. Os ideólogos do consenso neoliberal começaram logo com a conversa da “viragem ideológica” deste partido. As loucuras constitucionais de Passos Coelho, que fazem o sonho destes editorialistas, são um bom pretexto para o esforço de demarcação por parte de um PS que converge com o PSD na austeridade realmente existente e que assim reforça o plano inclinado do aprofundamento da neoliberalização da sociedade portuguesa."
Não deixe de ler na íntegra, no Arrastão.
quinta-feira, 27 de março de 2008
Auguste Blanqui: A essência do socialismo
“Não nos alongaremos muito, neste momento,em refutar os sofismas da economia política em favor da remuneração do capital, da capitalização. Essa tarefa essencial ficará para outra altura. Trata-se, agora, tão-só de fazer lembrar que os dois socialismos que se digladiam, o mutualismo e o associativo, apesar da sua divergência radical, estão de acordo sobre um ponto decisivo - a ilegitimidade dos juros. Isso não é tudo, sem dúvida. Mas questionemos, se isso se afigura pouco para os proprietários, os banqueiros, os capitães de indústria e para os negociantes!. Sem querer aliviar as dificuldades da organização do mercado de trabalho nos dois sistemas socialistas - e é nesse ponto que aparece o antagonismo visceral - podemos avançar com toda a força, que a essência nuclear do socialismo reside na fórmula que consagra a ilegitimidade dos juros do capital”.
In “Maintenant, il faut des armes”, Antologia de textos de Auguste Blanqui, La Fabrique Éditions, Paris
FAR
In “Maintenant, il faut des armes”, Antologia de textos de Auguste Blanqui, La Fabrique Éditions, Paris
FAR
terça-feira, 19 de fevereiro de 2008
Benjamin (2)

O conformismo, que sempre esteve no seu elemento na social-democracia, não condiciona apenas as suas tácticas políticas, mas também as suas ideias económicas. É uma das causas do seu colapso posterior. Nada foi mais corruptor para a classe operária alemã que a opinião de que ela nadava com a corrente. O desenvolvimento técnico era visto como o declive da corrente, na qual ela supunha estar nadando. Daí só havia um passo para crer que o trabalho industrial, que aparecia sob os traços do progresso técnico, representava uma grande conquista política. A antiga moral protestante do trabalho, secularizada, festejava uma ressurreição na classe trabalhadora alemã. O Programa de Gotha já continha elementos dessa confusão. Nele, o trabalho é definido como “a fonte de toda riqueza e de toda civilização”. Pressentindo o pior, Marx replicou que o homem que não possui outra propriedade que a sua força de trabalho está condenado a ser “o escravo de outros homens, que se tornaram... proprietários”. Apesar disso, a confusão continuou a propagar-se, e pouco depois Josef Dietzgen anunciava: “O trabalho é o Redentor dos tempos modernos... No aperfeiçoamento... do trabalho reside a riqueza, que agora pode realizar o que não foi realizado por nenhum salvador”. Esse conceito de trabalho, típico do marxismo vulgar, não examina a questão de como os seus produtos podem beneficiar trabalhadores que deles não dispõem. O seu interesse dirige-se apenas aos progressos na dominação da natureza, e não aos retrocessos na organização da sociedade. Já estão visíveis, nessa concepção, os traços tecnocráticos que mais tarde vão aflorar no fascismo. Entre eles, figura uma concepção da natureza que contrasta sinistramente com as utopias socialistas anteriores a março de 1848. O trabalho, como agora compreendido, visa uma exploração da natureza, comparada, com ingénua complacência, à exploração do proletariado. Ao lado dessa concepção positivista, as fantasias de um Fourier, tão ridicularizadas, revelam-se surpreendentemente razoáveis. Segundo Fourier, o trabalho social bem organizado teria entre os seus efeitos que quatro luas iluminariam a noite, que o gelo se retiraria dos pólos, que a água marinha deixaria de ser salgada e que os animais predatórios entrariam ao serviço do homem. Essas fantasias ilustram um tipo de trabalho que, longe de explorar a natureza, liberta as criações que dormem, como virtualidades, no seu ventre. Ao conceito corrompido de trabalho corresponde o conceito complementar de uma natureza, que segundo Dietzgen, “está ali, grátis”.
Walter Benjamin, in Sobre o Conceito de História, 1940
quinta-feira, 14 de fevereiro de 2008
Benjamin (1)

Fustel de Coulanges recomenda ao historiador interessado em ressuscitar uma época que esqueça tudo o que sabe sobre fases posteriores da história. Impossível caracterizar melhor o método com o qual rompeu o materialismo histórico. Esse método é o da empatia. Sua origem é a inércia do coração, a acedia, que desespera de apropriar-se da verdadeira imagem histórica, em seu relampejar fugaz. Para os teólogos medievais, a acedia era o primeiro fundamento da tristeza. Flaubert, que a conhecia, escreveu: “Peu de gens devineront combien il a fallu être triste pour ressusciter Carthage”. A natureza dessa tristeza se tomará mais clara se nos perguntarmos com quem o investigador historicista estabelece uma relação de empatia. A resposta é inequívoca: com o vencedor. Ora, os que num momento dado dominam são os herdeiros de todos os que venceram antes. A empatia com o vencedor beneficia sempre, portanto, esses dominadores. Isso diz tudo para o materialista histórico. Todos os que até hoje venceram participam do cortejo triunfal, em que os dominadores de hoje espezinham os corpos dos que estão prostrados no chão. Os despojos são carregados no cortejo, como de praxe. Esses despojos são o que chamamos bens culturais. O materialista histórico os contempla com distanciamento. Pois todos os bens culturais que ele vê têm uma origem sobre a qual ele não pode refletir sem horror. Devem sua existência não somente ao esforço dos grandes génios que os criaram, como à corvéia anónima dos seus contemporâneos. Nunca houve um monumento da cultura que não fosse também um monumento da barbárie. E, assim como a cultura não é isenta de barbárie, não o é, tampouco, o processo de transmissão da cultura. Por isso, na medida do possível, o materialista histórico se desvia dela. Considera sua tarefa escovar a história a contrapelo.
Walter Benjamin, in Sobre o Conceito de História (1940)
quinta-feira, 31 de janeiro de 2008
Why Socialism?
Is it advisable for one who is not an expert on economic and social issues to express views on the subject of socialism? I believe for a number of reasons that it is.
Let us first consider the question from the point of view of scientific knowledge. It might appear that there are no essential methodological differences between astronomy and economics: scientists in both fields attempt to discover laws of general acceptability for a circumscribed group of phenomena in order to make the interconnection of these phenomena as clearly understandable as possible. But in reality such methodological differences do exist. The discovery of general laws in the field of economics is made difficult by the circumstance that observed economic phenomena are often affected by many factors which are very hard to evaluate separately. In addition, the experience which has accumulated since the beginning of the so-called civilized period of human history has—as is well known—been largely influenced and limited by causes which are by no means exclusively economic in nature. For example, most of the major states of history owed their existence to conquest. The conquering peoples established themselves, legally and economically, as the privileged class of the conquered country. They seized for themselves a monopoly of the land ownership and appointed a priesthood from among their own ranks. The priests, in control of education, made the class division of society into a permanent institution and created a system of values by which the people were thenceforth, to a large extent unconsciously, guided in their social behavior.
But historic tradition is, so to speak, of yesterday; nowhere have we really overcome what Thorstein Veblen called "the predatory phase" of human development. The observable economic facts belong to that phase and even such laws as we can derive from them are not applicable to other phases. Since the real purpose of socialism is precisely to overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development, economic science in its present state can throw little light on the socialist society of the future.
Second, socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science, however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain certain ends. But the ends themselves are conceived by personalities with lofty ethical ideals and—if these ends are not stillborn, but vital and vigorous—are adopted and carried forward by those many human beings who, half unconsciously, determine the slow evolution of society.
For these reasons, we should be on our guard not to overestimate science and scientific methods when it is a question of human problems; and we should not assume that experts are the only ones who have a right to express themselves on questions affecting the organization of society.
Innumerable voices have been asserting for some time now that human society is passing through a crisis, that its stability has been gravely shattered. It is characteristic of such a situation that individuals feel indifferent or even hostile toward the group, small or large, to which they belong. In order to illustrate my meaning, let me record here a personal experience. I recently discussed with an intelligent and well-disposed man the threat of another war, which in my opinion would seriously endanger the existence of mankind, and I remarked that only a supra-national organization would offer protection from that danger. Thereupon my visitor, very calmly and coolly, said to me: "Why are you so deeply opposed to the disappearance of the human race?"
I am sure that as little as a century ago no one would have so lightly made a statement of this kind. It is the statement of a man who has striven in vain to attain an equilibrium within himself and has more or less lost hope of succeeding. It is the expression of a painful solitude and isolation from which so many people are suffering in these days. What is the cause? Is there a way out?
It is easy to raise such questions, but difficult to answer them with any degree of assurance. I must try, however, as best I can, although I am very conscious of the fact that our feelings and strivings are often contradictory and obscure and that they cannot be expressed in easy and simple formulas.
Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social being. As a solitary being, he attempts to protect his own existence and that of those who are closest to him, to satisfy his personal desires, and to develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he seeks to gain the recognition and affection of his fellow human beings, to share in their pleasures, to comfort them in their sorrows, and to improve their conditions of life. Only the existence of these varied, frequently conflicting, strivings accounts for the special character of a man, and their specific combination determines the extent to which an individual can achieve an inner equilibrium and can contribute to the well-being of society. It is quite possible that the relative strength of these two drives is, in the main, fixed by inheritance. But the personality that finally emerges is largely formed by the environment in which a man happens to find himself during his development, by the structure of the society in which he grows up, by the tradition of that society, and by its appraisal of particular types of behavior. The abstract concept "society" means to the individual human being the sum total of his direct and indirect relations to his contemporaries and to all the people of earlier generations. The individual is able to think, feel, strive, and work by himself; but he depends so much upon society—in his physical, intellectual, and emotional existence—that it is impossible to think of him, or to understand him, outside the framework of society. It is "society" which provides man with food, clothing, a home, the tools of work, language, the forms of thought, and most of the content of thought; his life is made possible through the labor and the accomplishments of the many millions past and present who are all hidden behind the small word “society.”
It is evident, therefore, that the dependence of the individual upon society is a fact of nature which cannot be abolished—just as in the case of ants and bees. However, while the whole life process of ants and bees is fixed down to the smallest detail by rigid, hereditary instincts, the social pattern and interrelationships of human beings are very variable and susceptible to change. Memory, the capacity to make new combinations, the gift of oral communication have made possible developments among human being which are not dictated by biological necessities. Such developments manifest themselves in traditions, institutions, and organizations; in literature; in scientific and engineering accomplishments; in works of art. This explains how it happens that, in a certain sense, man can influence his life through his own conduct, and that in this process conscious thinking and wanting can play a part.
Man acquires at birth, through heredity, a biological constitution which we must consider fixed and unalterable, including the natural urges which are characteristic of the human species. In addition, during his lifetime, he acquires a cultural constitution which he adopts from society through communication and through many other types of influences. It is this cultural constitution which, with the passage of time, is subject to change and which determines to a very large extent the relationship between the individual and society. Modern anthropology has taught us, through comparative investigation of so-called primitive cultures, that the social behavior of human beings may differ greatly, depending upon prevailing cultural patterns and the types of organization which predominate in society. It is on this that those who are striving to improve the lot of man may ground their hopes: human beings are not condemned, because of their biological constitution, to annihilate each other or to be at the mercy of a cruel, self-inflicted fate.
If we ask ourselves how the structure of society and the cultural attitude of man should be changed in order to make human life as satisfying as possible, we should constantly be conscious of the fact that there are certain conditions which we are unable to modify. As mentioned before, the biological nature of man is, for all practical purposes, not subject to change. Furthermore, technological and demographic developments of the last few centuries have created conditions which are here to stay. In relatively densely settled populations with the goods which are indispensable to their continued existence, an extreme division of labor and a highly-centralized productive apparatus are absolutely necessary. The time—which, looking back, seems so idyllic—is gone forever when individuals or relatively small groups could be completely self-sufficient. It is only a slight exaggeration to say that mankind constitutes even now a planetary community of production and consumption.
I have now reached the point where I may indicate briefly what to me constitutes the essence of the crisis of our time. It concerns the relationship of the individual to society. The individual has become more conscious than ever of his dependence upon society. But he does not experience this dependence as a positive asset, as an organic tie, as a protective force, but rather as a threat to his natural rights, or even to his economic existence. Moreover, his position in society is such that the egotistical drives of his make-up are constantly being accentuated, while his social drives, which are by nature weaker, progressively deteriorate. All human beings, whatever their position in society, are suffering from this process of deterioration. Unknowingly prisoners of their own egotism, they feel insecure, lonely, and deprived of the naive, simple, and unsophisticated enjoyment of life. Man can find meaning in life, short and perilous as it is, only through devoting himself to society.
The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil. We see before us a huge community of producers the members of which are unceasingly striving to deprive each other of the fruits of their collective labor—not by force, but on the whole in faithful compliance with legally established rules. In this respect, it is important to realize that the means of production—that is to say, the entire productive capacity that is needed for producing consumer goods as well as additional capital goods—may legally be, and for the most part are, the private property of individuals.
For the sake of simplicity, in the discussion that follows I shall call “workers” all those who do not share in the ownership of the means of production—although this does not quite correspond to the customary use of the term. The owner of the means of production is in a position to purchase the labor power of the worker. By using the means of production, the worker produces new goods which become the property of the capitalist. The essential point about this process is the relation between what the worker produces and what he is paid, both measured in terms of real value. Insofar as the labor contract is “free,” what the worker receives is determined not by the real value of the goods he produces, but by his minimum needs and by the capitalists' requirements for labor power in relation to the number of workers competing for jobs. It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the value of his product.
Private capital tends to become concentrated in few hands, partly because of competition among the capitalists, and partly because technological development and the increasing division of labor encourage the formation of larger units of production at the expense of smaller ones. The result of these developments is an oligarchy of private capital the enormous power of which cannot be effectively checked even by a democratically organized political society. This is true since the members of legislative bodies are selected by political parties, largely financed or otherwise influenced by private capitalists who, for all practical purposes, separate the electorate from the legislature. The consequence is that the representatives of the people do not in fact sufficiently protect the interests of the underprivileged sections of the population. Moreover, under existing conditions, private capitalists inevitably control, directly or indirectly, the main sources of information (press, radio, education). It is thus extremely difficult, and indeed in most cases quite impossible, for the individual citizen to come to objective conclusions and to make intelligent use of his political rights.
The situation prevailing in an economy based on the private ownership of capital is thus characterized by two main principles: first, means of production (capital) are privately owned and the owners dispose of them as they see fit; second, the labor contract is free. Of course, there is no such thing as a pure capitalist society in this sense. In particular, it should be noted that the workers, through long and bitter political struggles, have succeeded in securing a somewhat improved form of the “free labor contract” for certain categories of workers. But taken as a whole, the present day economy does not differ much from “pure” capitalism.
Production is carried on for profit, not for use. There is no provision that all those able and willing to work will always be in a position to find employment; an “army of unemployed” almost always exists. The worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since unemployed and poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable market, the production of consumers' goods is restricted, and great hardship is the consequence. Technological progress frequently results in more unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden of work for all. The profit motive, in conjunction with competition among capitalists, is responsible for an instability in the accumulation and utilization of capital which leads to increasingly severe depressions. Unlimited competition leads to a huge waste of labor, and to that crippling of the social consciousness of individuals which I mentioned before.
This crippling of individuals I consider the worst evil of capitalism. Our whole educational system suffers from this evil. An exaggerated competitive attitude is inculcated into the student, who is trained to worship acquisitive success as a preparation for his future career.
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to remember that a planned economy is not yet socialism. A planned economy as such may be accompanied by the complete enslavement of the individual. The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?
Clarity about the aims and problems of socialism is of greatest significance in our age of transition. Since, under present circumstances, free and unhindered discussion of these problems has come under a powerful taboo, I consider the foundation of this magazine to be an important public service.
by Albert Einstein
This essay was originally published in the first issue of Monthly Review (May 1949).
Let us first consider the question from the point of view of scientific knowledge. It might appear that there are no essential methodological differences between astronomy and economics: scientists in both fields attempt to discover laws of general acceptability for a circumscribed group of phenomena in order to make the interconnection of these phenomena as clearly understandable as possible. But in reality such methodological differences do exist. The discovery of general laws in the field of economics is made difficult by the circumstance that observed economic phenomena are often affected by many factors which are very hard to evaluate separately. In addition, the experience which has accumulated since the beginning of the so-called civilized period of human history has—as is well known—been largely influenced and limited by causes which are by no means exclusively economic in nature. For example, most of the major states of history owed their existence to conquest. The conquering peoples established themselves, legally and economically, as the privileged class of the conquered country. They seized for themselves a monopoly of the land ownership and appointed a priesthood from among their own ranks. The priests, in control of education, made the class division of society into a permanent institution and created a system of values by which the people were thenceforth, to a large extent unconsciously, guided in their social behavior.
But historic tradition is, so to speak, of yesterday; nowhere have we really overcome what Thorstein Veblen called "the predatory phase" of human development. The observable economic facts belong to that phase and even such laws as we can derive from them are not applicable to other phases. Since the real purpose of socialism is precisely to overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development, economic science in its present state can throw little light on the socialist society of the future.
Second, socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science, however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain certain ends. But the ends themselves are conceived by personalities with lofty ethical ideals and—if these ends are not stillborn, but vital and vigorous—are adopted and carried forward by those many human beings who, half unconsciously, determine the slow evolution of society.
For these reasons, we should be on our guard not to overestimate science and scientific methods when it is a question of human problems; and we should not assume that experts are the only ones who have a right to express themselves on questions affecting the organization of society.
Innumerable voices have been asserting for some time now that human society is passing through a crisis, that its stability has been gravely shattered. It is characteristic of such a situation that individuals feel indifferent or even hostile toward the group, small or large, to which they belong. In order to illustrate my meaning, let me record here a personal experience. I recently discussed with an intelligent and well-disposed man the threat of another war, which in my opinion would seriously endanger the existence of mankind, and I remarked that only a supra-national organization would offer protection from that danger. Thereupon my visitor, very calmly and coolly, said to me: "Why are you so deeply opposed to the disappearance of the human race?"
I am sure that as little as a century ago no one would have so lightly made a statement of this kind. It is the statement of a man who has striven in vain to attain an equilibrium within himself and has more or less lost hope of succeeding. It is the expression of a painful solitude and isolation from which so many people are suffering in these days. What is the cause? Is there a way out?
It is easy to raise such questions, but difficult to answer them with any degree of assurance. I must try, however, as best I can, although I am very conscious of the fact that our feelings and strivings are often contradictory and obscure and that they cannot be expressed in easy and simple formulas.
Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social being. As a solitary being, he attempts to protect his own existence and that of those who are closest to him, to satisfy his personal desires, and to develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he seeks to gain the recognition and affection of his fellow human beings, to share in their pleasures, to comfort them in their sorrows, and to improve their conditions of life. Only the existence of these varied, frequently conflicting, strivings accounts for the special character of a man, and their specific combination determines the extent to which an individual can achieve an inner equilibrium and can contribute to the well-being of society. It is quite possible that the relative strength of these two drives is, in the main, fixed by inheritance. But the personality that finally emerges is largely formed by the environment in which a man happens to find himself during his development, by the structure of the society in which he grows up, by the tradition of that society, and by its appraisal of particular types of behavior. The abstract concept "society" means to the individual human being the sum total of his direct and indirect relations to his contemporaries and to all the people of earlier generations. The individual is able to think, feel, strive, and work by himself; but he depends so much upon society—in his physical, intellectual, and emotional existence—that it is impossible to think of him, or to understand him, outside the framework of society. It is "society" which provides man with food, clothing, a home, the tools of work, language, the forms of thought, and most of the content of thought; his life is made possible through the labor and the accomplishments of the many millions past and present who are all hidden behind the small word “society.”
It is evident, therefore, that the dependence of the individual upon society is a fact of nature which cannot be abolished—just as in the case of ants and bees. However, while the whole life process of ants and bees is fixed down to the smallest detail by rigid, hereditary instincts, the social pattern and interrelationships of human beings are very variable and susceptible to change. Memory, the capacity to make new combinations, the gift of oral communication have made possible developments among human being which are not dictated by biological necessities. Such developments manifest themselves in traditions, institutions, and organizations; in literature; in scientific and engineering accomplishments; in works of art. This explains how it happens that, in a certain sense, man can influence his life through his own conduct, and that in this process conscious thinking and wanting can play a part.
Man acquires at birth, through heredity, a biological constitution which we must consider fixed and unalterable, including the natural urges which are characteristic of the human species. In addition, during his lifetime, he acquires a cultural constitution which he adopts from society through communication and through many other types of influences. It is this cultural constitution which, with the passage of time, is subject to change and which determines to a very large extent the relationship between the individual and society. Modern anthropology has taught us, through comparative investigation of so-called primitive cultures, that the social behavior of human beings may differ greatly, depending upon prevailing cultural patterns and the types of organization which predominate in society. It is on this that those who are striving to improve the lot of man may ground their hopes: human beings are not condemned, because of their biological constitution, to annihilate each other or to be at the mercy of a cruel, self-inflicted fate.
If we ask ourselves how the structure of society and the cultural attitude of man should be changed in order to make human life as satisfying as possible, we should constantly be conscious of the fact that there are certain conditions which we are unable to modify. As mentioned before, the biological nature of man is, for all practical purposes, not subject to change. Furthermore, technological and demographic developments of the last few centuries have created conditions which are here to stay. In relatively densely settled populations with the goods which are indispensable to their continued existence, an extreme division of labor and a highly-centralized productive apparatus are absolutely necessary. The time—which, looking back, seems so idyllic—is gone forever when individuals or relatively small groups could be completely self-sufficient. It is only a slight exaggeration to say that mankind constitutes even now a planetary community of production and consumption.
I have now reached the point where I may indicate briefly what to me constitutes the essence of the crisis of our time. It concerns the relationship of the individual to society. The individual has become more conscious than ever of his dependence upon society. But he does not experience this dependence as a positive asset, as an organic tie, as a protective force, but rather as a threat to his natural rights, or even to his economic existence. Moreover, his position in society is such that the egotistical drives of his make-up are constantly being accentuated, while his social drives, which are by nature weaker, progressively deteriorate. All human beings, whatever their position in society, are suffering from this process of deterioration. Unknowingly prisoners of their own egotism, they feel insecure, lonely, and deprived of the naive, simple, and unsophisticated enjoyment of life. Man can find meaning in life, short and perilous as it is, only through devoting himself to society.
The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil. We see before us a huge community of producers the members of which are unceasingly striving to deprive each other of the fruits of their collective labor—not by force, but on the whole in faithful compliance with legally established rules. In this respect, it is important to realize that the means of production—that is to say, the entire productive capacity that is needed for producing consumer goods as well as additional capital goods—may legally be, and for the most part are, the private property of individuals.
For the sake of simplicity, in the discussion that follows I shall call “workers” all those who do not share in the ownership of the means of production—although this does not quite correspond to the customary use of the term. The owner of the means of production is in a position to purchase the labor power of the worker. By using the means of production, the worker produces new goods which become the property of the capitalist. The essential point about this process is the relation between what the worker produces and what he is paid, both measured in terms of real value. Insofar as the labor contract is “free,” what the worker receives is determined not by the real value of the goods he produces, but by his minimum needs and by the capitalists' requirements for labor power in relation to the number of workers competing for jobs. It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the value of his product.
Private capital tends to become concentrated in few hands, partly because of competition among the capitalists, and partly because technological development and the increasing division of labor encourage the formation of larger units of production at the expense of smaller ones. The result of these developments is an oligarchy of private capital the enormous power of which cannot be effectively checked even by a democratically organized political society. This is true since the members of legislative bodies are selected by political parties, largely financed or otherwise influenced by private capitalists who, for all practical purposes, separate the electorate from the legislature. The consequence is that the representatives of the people do not in fact sufficiently protect the interests of the underprivileged sections of the population. Moreover, under existing conditions, private capitalists inevitably control, directly or indirectly, the main sources of information (press, radio, education). It is thus extremely difficult, and indeed in most cases quite impossible, for the individual citizen to come to objective conclusions and to make intelligent use of his political rights.
The situation prevailing in an economy based on the private ownership of capital is thus characterized by two main principles: first, means of production (capital) are privately owned and the owners dispose of them as they see fit; second, the labor contract is free. Of course, there is no such thing as a pure capitalist society in this sense. In particular, it should be noted that the workers, through long and bitter political struggles, have succeeded in securing a somewhat improved form of the “free labor contract” for certain categories of workers. But taken as a whole, the present day economy does not differ much from “pure” capitalism.
Production is carried on for profit, not for use. There is no provision that all those able and willing to work will always be in a position to find employment; an “army of unemployed” almost always exists. The worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since unemployed and poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable market, the production of consumers' goods is restricted, and great hardship is the consequence. Technological progress frequently results in more unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden of work for all. The profit motive, in conjunction with competition among capitalists, is responsible for an instability in the accumulation and utilization of capital which leads to increasingly severe depressions. Unlimited competition leads to a huge waste of labor, and to that crippling of the social consciousness of individuals which I mentioned before.
This crippling of individuals I consider the worst evil of capitalism. Our whole educational system suffers from this evil. An exaggerated competitive attitude is inculcated into the student, who is trained to worship acquisitive success as a preparation for his future career.
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to remember that a planned economy is not yet socialism. A planned economy as such may be accompanied by the complete enslavement of the individual. The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?
Clarity about the aims and problems of socialism is of greatest significance in our age of transition. Since, under present circumstances, free and unhindered discussion of these problems has come under a powerful taboo, I consider the foundation of this magazine to be an important public service.
by Albert Einstein
This essay was originally published in the first issue of Monthly Review (May 1949).
Etiquetas:
Albert Einstein,
Monthly Review,
Socialismo
terça-feira, 22 de janeiro de 2008
Um governo "socialista"
Leio no DN que, de acordo com os cálculos recém-aprovados sobre a "sustentabilidade" do sistema de pensões, os trabalhadores jovens terão, em muitos casos, e para não ser penalizados na reforma, de trabalhar até aos 68 anos.
Pressinto que não faltará muito tempo até começar a ler argumentos sobre a imoralidade e a insustentabilidade de as gerações jovens sustentarem sequer qualquer sistema de pensões às gerações idosas. Nesse tempo não distante, o que aparecerá como "justo" será cada um descontar para si, e receber apenas o que poupou, numa patética mascarada destinada a eliminar qualquer vestigio de solidariedade social e princípio redistribuitivo.
Nessa altura eu, pelo menos, não me esquecerei do grande impulso dado à "modernidade" do sistema de pensões por um governo "socialista".
terça-feira, 4 de dezembro de 2007
Venezuela hoy
A Venezuela é, hoje por hoje, uma das questões essenciais no debate político à Esquerda. Eu diria mesmo a questão essencial, onde se revelam velhas e novas fracturas. De facto, o programa chavista, ao contrário de outros, nada tem de inócuo: é um programa "socialista" (nacionalização dos grandes meios de produção, redução do horário laboral, redistribuição generalizada da riqueza, por exemplo). Mas é também um programa aplicado verticalmente, do topo para a base, e baseado numa figura populista e com laivos autoritários (o que não é o mesmo que ditatoriais, como se sabe – e temos cá no burgo um "socialista" que nos comprova isso mesmo). No posicionamento perante Chavez, e tomando em conta estes aspectos complementares, revelam-se as velhas e as novas linhas do pensamento político à Esquerda.Chavez perdeu um referendo em que eu, provavelmente, votaria contra, mas não festejaria a vitória. No geral, aprecio a constituição chavista de 1999, mas este projecto tem algo que por si só me repele: a possibilidade de eleição ad eternum do presidente. Contudo, aprecio menos ainda a oposição venezuelana que hoje canta vitória, que corresponde em termos políticos aos tradicionais caudilhos sul-americanos que fizeram da corrupção generalizada sistema, e em termos sociais às classes privilegiadas que temem perder o estatuto. Esses, que todos os dias se queixam do caminho chavista para a ditadura (mas que se queixam nos media sem que alguém os incomode), não foram, ao contrário de Chavez, capazes de reconhecer uma única das suas derrotas. É natural: não estavam habituados a algo mais que a "saudável alternância democrática" do pântano dos centrões. A Democracia, já se sabe, é uma ideia muito bonita, mas só quando nos convém. Também no nosso burgo, a Direita garante que a Venezuela está a caminho da Ditadura, e isto apesar de não existir um único preso político (ao contrário de Portugal onde, segundo a mesma Direita, há um, o Mário Machado), de a oposição dominar a generalidade dos media (mesmo que, na sua santa ingenuidade, a Casa Branca insista em afirmar que "não teve acesso às televisões"), e de o Presidente aceitar a derrota sem banhos de sangue ou demonstrações de força (ao contrário do que fez a oposição quando, eles mesmos, foram derrotados nas urnas e urdiram um golpe de estado contra um lider eleito). Os limites da Democracia terão, então, necessariamente de ser outros. Talvez sejam, precisamente, a nacionalização dos grandes meios de produção, a redução do horário laboral, ou redistribuição generalizada da riqueza, por exemplo. Daí que se possa concluir que a Democracia pode ser tudo, mas não pode ser Democracia Socialista. Isso já ultrapassa o admissível pelas boas consciências democráticas da Direita, seja ela "Conservadora" ou "Liberal".
Como escrevi neste blogue anteriormente, a América Latina é o grande laboratório das alternativas à Esquerda no século XXI. Não é por acaso que Chavez ou Morales são atacados, boicotados, difamados, de tal modo que, daqui a uns tempos, já a novilingua da "Direita Liberal" conseguiu fazer passar essa extraordinária asserção de que a Venezuela é uma "ditadura". Seria conveniente não cairmos nós próprios nessa esparrela.
terça-feira, 17 de julho de 2007
O socialismo e o estado
Esta polémica é muito esclarecedora, para que se entenda uma coisa: os "liberais" não fazem a mais pálida ideia do que seja o socialismo. Como as palavras são preciosas, e como determinadas mistificações tendem, infelizmente, a fazer escola, passo a esclarecer: "socialismo" e "estatismo" não são a mesma coisa. Há socialismos profundamente anti-estatistas e individualistas, tanto historicamente, por exemplo o socialismo libertário, o comunismo conselhista, ou o anarquismo social, como no presente, e cada vez mais no presente. Claro que não estou à espera que eles entendam isto. Como tive oportunidade de esclarecer aqui, nós, os socialistas, sabemos muito bem que o estado moderno é o estado capitalista, contra o qual nos batemos. Portanto, se o socialismo não é o estatismo, outra coisa será. A meu ver, é antes de mais a única filosofia política que se bate pela Liberdade. Mas para que os "liberais" entendessem isto, teriam de avançar um passo à frente da sua concepção redutora e minimalista de liberdade, e entender o que são relações assimétricas de poder entre os homens, e como estas são coarctoras da liberdade individual. Enquanto não se resolver este problema, de uma forma que permita a que cada homem se possa realizar individualmente, e plenamente fruir a sua liberdade, sem os constrangimentos que só os miopes não percebem, o maior dos quais a crescente assimetria na distribuição da riqueza, o estado é um mal necessário. Porque a alternativa "liberal" é ainda pior.
quinta-feira, 3 de maio de 2007
"Liberais"
Inevitavelmente, distinguem-se naqueles que se chamam a si próprios “liberais” dois campos que de vez em quando aparecem como irredeutiveis: aqueles para quem ser “liberal” significa ser pelos interesses dos ricos, a manutenção do status quo com o pretexto intransigente da propriedade privada, mesmo que estes se disfarcem por vezes uns como conservadores defensores de uma herança histórica cristã ou "ocidental", e os outros como revolucionários em que a revolução é a mesma herança histórica cristã ou "ocidental"; e os Liberais, para quem ser "liberal" sngifica antes de tudo a herança liberalistica da burguesia, ou seja, que se preocupa genuinamente com a liberdade do ser humano face ao Estado e os demais constrangimentos impostos à sua vontade de viver a vida como quer.
É importante perceber aos socialistas modernos que nada nos aproxima dos primeiros, mas que muitas coisas nos assemelham aos segundos.
quarta-feira, 2 de maio de 2007
MayDay

Como os leitores atentos notarão, tenho andado um bocado afastado destas lides, confesso que por alguma saturação. Tanto, que nem sequer por aqui anunciei e comentei o MayDay, a manifestação global de trabalhadores precários, artistas, imigrantes, trabalhadores-estudantes, etc., que este ano se realizou também em Lisboa pela primeira vez. Também falhei na minha intenção de marcar presença, devido aos arreliadores efeitos de uma noitada. Penitencio-me! Mas, como o mal está feito, deixo os leitores com a ligação para o blogue criado como suporte à iniciativa.
Esta inciativa, devo dizê-lo, parece-me notável. Os sindicatos, infelizmente, vivem amarrados a velhas lógicas e ao interesse dos seus filiados, completamente desligados deste "novo protelariado" onde germina a criatividade das lutas do Século XXI. Pois se o 1º de Maio não vai aos precários, vão os precários ao 1º de Maio. Aguardo por um relato de amigos que lá estiveram, mas espero ter sido um êxito.
quarta-feira, 28 de março de 2007
The portuguese way
O comentário do leitor Filipe Brás Almeida suscita-me a seguinte reflexão: de facto, hoje em dia em Portugal, o "liberalismo" tornou-se num confortável guarda-chuva onde cabe uma míriade de coisas: a direita pura e dura, os tecnocratas eficientistas, os anarco-capitalistas de candura ingénua, liberais clássicos, ou a esquerda liberal. Se isto, visto à luz da tradição que subjaz ao conceito de "liberalismo", não é um problema por aí além, a questão é que algumas destas correntes não concordam em absolutamente nada; se todos usam e abusam da palavra "liberdade", às vezes tomando-a como património seu inalienável (esquecendo toda a história da esquerda libertária, o socialismo utópico e mesmo o marxismo antes de Lenine), a verdade é que esta ideia tão fundamentalmente humana serve como ready-made para todos os gostos- de ultra-capitalistas a adeptos do modelo social da igreja, de liberais nos costumes a adeptos da criminalização do aborto, todos encontram um fundamento nessa "liberdade", que de tão indefinida corre o risco de se tornar uma palavra espúria e desprovida de sentido.
No entanto, isto não deixa de ser natural: esta nova geração, a minha geração, cresceu num tempo em que o guarda-chuva para toda a gente era o "socialismo", tanto que, hoje por hoje, já poucos fazem a mínima ideia do que signifique- ouve-se por aí que vivemos no "socialismo", o que seria uma anedota, se não significasse justamente isso. Desde pelo menos 1977 que pouco ou nada do que se faz em Portugal tem o que seja a ver com "socialismo", e no entanto cada vez mais se lhe atribui a culpa de todos os males portugueses. É evidente que para isto contribui termos um Partido Socialista que é social-democrata, e um Partido Social-Democrata da direita populista, contribuindo para aumentar a confusão- melhor seria se se chamassem os bois pelos nomes. Mas não nos iludamos: o uso e abuso da palavra "socialismo" como fonte de legitimação de tudo o que se fez durante uns bons 10 anos após o 25 de Abril, mesmo quando o que se fazia era justamente o contrário, tem um preço que iremos pagar durante uns bons tempos.
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